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Divine Providence
In theology, Divine Providence, or simply Providence, is the sovereignty, superintendence, or agency of God over events in people's lives and throughout history. Etymology This word comes from Latin providentia "foresight, prudence", from pro-'' "ahead" + ''videre "to see". The current meaning of the word (Divine Providence) derives from the sense "knowledge of the future" or omniscience, which is the privilege of God. The initial meaning of providere remains in 'to provide' = "to take precautionary measures". Reformed theology This term is an integral part of John Calvin's theological framework known as Calvinism, which emphasizes the depravity of man and the complete sovereignty of God. God's plan for the world and every soul that he has created is guided by his will, or providence. According to Calvin, the idea that man has a free will and is able to make choices independently of what God has already determined is based on our limited understanding of God's perfection and the delusion that God's purposes can be circumvented. In this mode of thought, providence is related to predestination. The idea of providence as a central issue of piety was further developed by many of Calvin's followers, such as the English Puritans. In modern times, this concept remains prominent among many Protestant denominations that identify with Calvinism, the Reformed churches. Lutheran theology In Lutheran theology, Divine Providence refers to God's preservation of creation, God's cooperation with everything that happens, and God's guiding of the universe.Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. Concordia Publishing House. 1934. pp. 189-195 and Fuerbringer, L., Concordia Cyclopedia Concordia Publishing House. 1927. p. 635 and Christian Cyclopedia article on Divine Providence. For further reading, see The Proof Texts of the Catechism with a Practical Commentary, section Divine Providence, p. 212, Wessel, Louis, published in Theological Quarterly, Vol. 11, 1909. According to Martin Luther, Divine Providence began when God created the world with everything needed for human life, including both physical things and natural laws. Luther's Works Vol. 1 Lectures on Genesis Chapters 1-5 page 25, 47. In Luther's Small Catechism, the explanation of the first article of the Apostle's Creed declares that everything people have that is good is given and preserved by God, either directly or through other people or things Luther's Small Catechism, The Apostle's Creed. Of the services others provide us through family, government, and work, he writes, "we receive these blessings not from them, but, through them, from God."Luther's Large Catechism, First Commandment Since God uses everyone's useful tasks for good, people should look not down upon some useful vocations as being less worthy than others. Instead people should honor others, no matter how lowly, as being the means God uses to work in the world.Luther's Large Catechism, First Commandment Lutherans hold that while God cooperates with both good and evil deeds, he does so only inasmuch as they are deeds, not with the evil in them. God concurs with an act's effect, but does not cooperate in the corruption of an act or the evil of its effectMueller, Steven P.,Called to Believe, Teach, and Confess. Wipf and Stock. 2005. pp. 122-123.. Lutherans believe everything exists for the sake of the Christian Church, and that God guides everything for its welfare and growthMueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. Concordia Publishing House: 1934. pp. 190 and Edward. W. A.,A Short Explanation of Dr. Martin Luther's Small Catechism. Concordia Publishing House. 1946. p. 165. and Divine Providence and Human Adversity by Markus O. Koepsell. Catholic theology St. Augustine of Hippo is perhaps most famously associated with the doctrine of Divine Providence in the Latin West. However, Christian teaching on providence in the high Middle Ages was most fully developed by St. Thomas Aquinas in Summa Theologica. Providence, as care exercised by the Supreme Being over the universe, His foresight and care for its future is extensively developed and explained by Thomas Aquinas and modern thomists. One of the studies by foremost modern thomist, Dominican father Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange entitled "Providence. God's loving care for man and the need for confidence in Almighty God." (published first in 1932) presents and solves in the light of Catholic doctrine the most difficult issues as related to providence. In the subsequent generation, Catholic theologians such as Henri de Lubac and Hans urs von Balthasar developed the doctrine in ways which emphasized its biblical and Augustinian origins in Catholic thought. Swedenborgian theology Divine Providence is also a book (see external links), published by Emanuel Swedenborg in 1764, which describes his systematic theology regarding providence, free will, theodicy, and other related topics. Both meanings of the word providence described above ('foresight' and 'to provide') are applicable in the theology defined in Swedenborg's writings in that providence encompasses understanding, intent and action. Divine Providence relative to man is 'foresight', and relative to the Lord is 'providence'S. Warren, Compendium of Swedenborg's Theological Writings, page 480. Swedenborg proposes that one law of Divine Providence is that man should act from freedom according to reason, and that man is regenerated according to the faculties of rationality and libertySwedenborg, E. Divine Providence, note 71-73. In deistic thought Since deism does not have dogma, individual deists are free to believe in Providence or to not, whichever they consider more reasonable. Many do believe that God's plan has carefully provided for humanity. In Jewish thought Divine providence (Hebrew השגחה פרטית Hasgochoh Protis / Hasgachah Pratit lit. Divine supervision of the individual) is discussed throughout Rabbinic literature, and in particular by the classical Jewish philosophers. The discussion brings into consideration the Jewish understanding of nature, and its reciprocal, the miraculous. This analysis thus underpins much of Orthodox Judaism's world view, particularly as regards questions of interaction with the natural world. Classical Jewish philosophy Divine providence is discussed by all of the major thinkers, but its extent and nature is a matter of dispute "Jewish Philosophy" Dagobert D. Runes, "Dictionary of Philosophy", 1942. . There are, broadly, two views, differing largely as to the frequency with which God intervenes in the natural order. The first view admits a frequency of miracles. Here there is a stability of the natural order which nevertheless allows for the interference of God in the regulation of human events, or even in disturbing the natural order on occasion. The second, rationalist view does not deny the occurrence of miracles, but attempts to limit it, and will rationalize the numerous miraculous events related in the Bible and bring them within the sphere of the natural order. Nachmanides The teachings of Nachmanides ("Ramban") are largely representative of the first view. He holds that the Creator endowed the universe with physical properties, and sustains the natural order, and that any act of providence involves, by definition, an intrusion into the laws of nature. In the absence of providential interference, cause and effect governs the affairs of the universe. In Ramban's view, reward and punishment — as well as guidance of the fate of Israel — are the typical expressions of such providence (see Ramban: Torat Hashem Temimah). In this sense there is no difference between God causing it to rain (as a reward) and His separating the waters of the Red Sea. Both are the result of Divine intervention. :"And from the great and well-known miracles a man comes to admit to hidden miracles which are the foundation of the whole Torah. A person has no portion in the Torah of Moses unless he believes that all our matters and circumstances are miracles and they do not follow nature or the general custom of the world …rather, if one does mitzvot he will succeed due to the reward he merits …" (Exodus 13:16 ad loc) All events (natural or providential) are the result of the direct will of God, and, as such, the seemingly natural order of the world is an illusion. At the same time, any (obvious) breach in the chain of causality involves a "compromise” in the default cause and effect nature of the universe — providence is thus exercised sparingly, and in a "seemingly natural" manner (Genesis 6:19 ad loc). Thus, whereas the fate of the Jews as a nation is guided by providence, individuals do not enjoy the same providential relationship with the Almighty. Only the righteous and the wicked can expect providential treatment. The fate of more “average” individuals is primarily guided by natural law (Deuteronomy 11:13 ad loc). Maimonides Maimonides ("Rambam") is representative of the rationalist school. He holds that the pattern of nature is basically immutable. “This Universe remains perpetually with the same properties with which the Creator has endowed it… none of these will ever be changed except by way of miracle in some individual instances….” (''Guide'' 2:29). This notwithstanding, Maimonides believes that God rewards and punishes appropriately. To some extent, Rambam reconciles the two views by defining providence as an essentially natural process. Here individual providence depends on the development of the human mind: that is, the more a man develops his mind the more he is subject to the providence of God. Providence is, in fact, a function of intellectual and spiritual activity: it is the activity, not the person that merits providence. "Divine Providence is connected with Divine intellectual influence, and the same beings which are benefited by the latter so as to become intellectual, and to comprehend things comprehensible to rational beings, are also under the control of Divine Providence, which examines all their deeds in order to reward or punish them." (''Guide'' 3:17). Consistent with Rambam, Sefer ha-Chinuch - 512 Not to mutter incantations, on Deuteronomy 18:11 – states that the practice of [[Book_of_Psalms#Use_of_the_Psalms_in_Jewish_ritual| saying Tehillim]] in times of need is designed not to achieve Divine favour, but rather to inculcate into one’s consciousness the idea of Divine Providence. Further, by defining Providence as function of human activity, Maimonides avoids the problem of how God can be affected by events on Earth, lessening any implication of change within God and the resultant implication of a lack of perfection. "How bad things can happen to good people" Rabbi Gidon Rothstein, Moreh Nevukhim—Chapter 51, Part 5 ; see Divine simplicity. Maimonides, relatedly, views "reward and punishment" as manifesting in the World to Come as opposed to in this world (see Talmud, Kiddushin 39b; Pirkei Avot 2:16) — he therefore defines Divine providence as that which facilitates intellectual attainment as opposed to as an instrument of reward and punishment. :“The reward given for fulfilling commandments is life in the World to Come.. So where it is written that if one listens, one will receive such-and-such, and that if one doesn't listen such-and-such will happen to one … such as plenty, famine, war, peace, monarchy, humility, living in Israel, exile, success, misfortune … refers to that which will aid us in fulfilling the Torah, which will be influenced to come our way so that we will not have to occupy ourselves all day in obtaining bodily needs, but that we will be free … to learn and gather knowledge and fulfill commandments.” (Mishneh Torah, Teshuva 9:1.) Contemporary Orthodox thought From a religious point of view, the extent to which nature is fixed, and to which God intervenes in human affairs, will have very strong implications as to what level, and kind, of interaction with the natural world are appropriate. The question of Divine providence thus remains relevant in (Orthodox) Jewish thought. In fact, both of the above approaches continue to influence contemporary Orthodox Judaism. In general, Nachmanides' view is influential in Haredi Judaism, while Maimonides' view — in addition to Nachmanides' — underpins much of Modern Orthodox thought. The difference between the two approaches manifests particularly in the importance assigned to, and attitudes toward, three areas: *''Derech eretz: involvement with the natural world, particularly for purposes of livelihood. *Technology: the use and manipulation of nature. *''Madda: knowledge of the functioning of nature and society, both to facilitate derech eretz and as a complement to Torah study. Haredi Judaism The view of Rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler is representative of the Haredi approach. To generalise, Rabbi Dessler "Rav Eliyohu Eliezer Dessler, zt'l, His Fiftieth Yahrtzeit" Rabbi Dov Wein, Dei'ah veDibur, January 2004 (along with the Chazon Ish) teaches that given the illusory "nature of nature", each individual must find their appropriate balance between personal effort (hishtadlus / hishtadlut השתדלות) and trust (bitochon / bitachon ביטחון). "Rav Dessler", relatedly, often repeated the idea that every object and circumstance in the material world should be viewed as a means of serving Hashem (God) ibid. *In line with Ramban, Rabbi Dessler defines nature as the arena of "Nisayon" (נסיון Hebrew: spiritual test) — i.e. one will engage in derech eretz in inverse proportion to his recognition of God's providential role. Rabbi Dessler thus advises (based on Mesillat Yesharim Ch. 21) that one make his Torah fixed (kavua קבוע) and his derech eretz temporary and contingent on circumstances (arai עראי). Note that Rabbi Dessler stresses that "cannot exploit a tendency to laziness in order to bolster his bitochon in Hashem ("trust in God") … Trust in Hashem cannot be built up this way because the goal here is not to refrain from work but to attain certainty in bitochon in Hashem that leads to lessening worldly endeavors." (Mikhtav me-Eliyahu, vol. 1. pp. 194- 5) * Given this conception of nature, Rav Dessler castigates preoccupation with technological enterprises and deems this the equivalent of idolatry. He writes that a civilization which is preoccupied with developing the external and the material, and neglects the inner moral content will eventually degenerate to its lowest possible depths "Cellular Terrorism" Rabbi Nosson Grossman, Dei'ah veDibur, May 2001: “Happiness in this world comes only as a result of being content with what one has in this world, and striving intensively for spirituality” and thus “the more that people try to improve this world, the more their troubles will backlash … Instead of realizing they are drowning in materialism, they search for further ways to enhance physicality” (See Mikhtav me-Eliyahu, vol. 2 p. 236-310 and vol. 3 p.143-70). See also "Do We have a Hammer . . . or a Gun?" Mordechai Plaut, Dei'ah veDibur, December 2004 *Rav Dessler writes that the acquisition of secular knowledge is unlikely to be other than at the expense of Torah knowledge. "The philosophy of Yeshiva education is directed towards one objective alone, to nurture Gedolei Torah ("greats in Torah knowledge") and Yirei Shamayim (those "fearful of Heaven") in tandem. For this reason university was prohibited to yeshiva students… educators could not see how to nurture Gedolei Torah unless they directed all education towards Torah exclusively" (letter in Mikhtav me-Eliyahu vol. 3). See also "Call to Stand Firm Against Chareidi Yeshiva High Schools" Yated Ne'eman Staff, December 2003 Modern Orthodox Judaism Rabbi Joseph Soloveitchik — probably Modern Orthodoxy’s most influential theologian — echoes Maimonides’ teaching. He writes that “the fundamental of providence is… transformed into a concrete commandment, an obligation incumbent upon man. Man is obliged to broaden the scope and strengthen the intensity of the individual providence that watches over him. Everything is dependent on him; it is all in his hands”. (Halakhic Man, p. 128) *In line with this emphasis on proactivity, Modern Orthodox thought regards derech eretz, Man's involvement with the natural world, as a divine imperative inherent in the nature of creation (as opposed to as a "necessary evil" as above). Here, "worldly involvement" extends to a positive contribution to general society "Practical Endeavor and the Torah U'Madda Debate" Rabbi Dr. David Shatz, Torah U'Madda Volume 3: 1991-1992. This understanding is reflected both in Rav Soloveitchik's conception as well as in the teachings of Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch; see Torah Umadda, Torah im Derech Eretz. *Similarly, Rabbi Soloveitchik, in The Lonely Man of Faith, mandates the involvement of human beings in technological activity. This is based on God's blessing to Adam and Eve "Fill the land and conquer it" (Genesis 1:28), which extends to the obligation of imitatio dei. The use and development of Technology, then, is not characterised as "prideful", but rather is seen as obligatory upon man. *Further,'' Madda, knowledge of the natural world and society, is regarded as vital in Modern Orthodox thought. This knowledge plays an obvious role in the facilitation of ''derech eretz and the development of technology. It is also seen as valuable as a complement to Torah study. This further reflects Maimonides, in that he, famously, defines science and philosophy as "Handmaidens" of Torah study — one could not be a learned Jew without this knowledge "Tinsel Town does Morality" Rabbi D Hecht, nishma.org . See also * Destiny and Fate * Omniscience * Synchronicity * Qadar * Eye of Providence * Providence Plantations, the original name of the Rhode Island mainland References External links *Christian material ** [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/hodge/theology1.iv.xi.html Charles Hodge's Systematic Theology chapter on Providence] at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library ** Summa Theologica: The Providence of God by Thomas Aquinas. Traditional teaching of the Catholic Church ** Calvin on Providence ** God's Providence by James Montgomery Boice ** Dialogue 4, 13 "On Divine Providence": LH, Sunday, week 19, OR. by St. Catherine of Siena ** The Mystery of Providence by John Flavel, ISBN 0-85151-104-X — a Puritan classic on the subject ** Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry **What should I believe about Providence? Options in contemporary Theology, John Mark Hicks ** Divine Providence, Emanuel Swedenborg ** *Jewish material ** Jewish Encyclopedia entry ** The Study of Nature in Jewish thought ** "Practical Endeavor and the Torah u-Madda Debate" (PDF) ** The view of Rabbi Dessler ** The view of Rabbi Soloveitchik ** The Baal Shem Tov's conception of Divine Providence ** Maharal on Nature and Miracles ** Articles on Divine Providence (chabad.org) ** www.HashgchaPratis.com: Stories & Articles on Divine Providence Category:Christian theology Category:Jewish philosophy Category:Prophecy Category:Synchronicity